what did the civil rights act of 1871 do

Federal legislation enacted by Congress over the course of a century beginning with the post-Civil War era that implemented and extended the fundamental guarantees of the Constitution to all citizens of the United States, regardless of their race, color, age, or religion. 100-383), stands as a landmark. The impetus for this legislation began as early as 1941 with House Resolution (H.R.) Hall, Kermit L. 1984. Under this original constitutional framework, the federal government was conceived as a great danger to liberty. The Enforcement Act (17 Stat. Maki, Mitchell T., Harry H. L. Kitano, and S. Megan Berthold. It is also interpreted to guarantee equal protection of all citizens under the law. 1979Pub. Perceiving this as a step backward, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1991, which overruled some the most onerous aspects of these decisions. "Private Conspiracies and the Constitution: A Modern Vision of 42 U.S.C. Serious questions existed, however, as to the constitutionality of the 1866 act and to whether Congress actually had authority to enact such a measure. 1983, also known as the Civil Rights Act of 1871, a federal law. With Plessy, the Court ushered in the era of segregation. Tracking the language of the earlier Civil Rights Act, the amendment declared: All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof are citizens of the United States and the State wherein they reside. Statutes at Large. It fell far short, however, of the actual economic damages incurred. ." WebExamples of the Act of 1871 in a sentence. WebPresident Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 which prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or nation origin, in public places, provided for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination illegal. National Black Law Journal 12 (Spring 1990): 6172. WebJames Weldon Johnson was a prominent African American figure during the Civil Rights movement. Webinjunctive relief pursuant to the Civil Rights Act of 1871 (a law that was enacted to fight discrimination against African Americans during Reconstruction), asserting that she was The major provisions of the acts authorized federal authorities to enforce penalties upon Webthe Civil Rights Act of 19646 and its 1972 amendments, 7 which established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and created civil remedies for acts of employment discrimination.8 Little attention, however, has been given to important statu-tory provisions derived from the Civil Rights Acts of 18669 and https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/dictionaries-thesauruses-pictures-and-press-releases/civil-rights-restoration-act-1987, Handler, Jack "Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 Encyclopedia.com. Then, copy and paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list. On May 6, 1960, Eisenhower signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1960, which established federal inspections of local voter registration polls and introduced penalties for anyone who obstructed a persons attempt to register to vote. This administration has long been combating a surge in child exploitation, and today, the Department of Labor and HHS announced that they will create a new interagency task force to combat child exploitation, she said. The Civil Rights Act of 1871also known as the Ku Klux Klan Act or the Enforcement Actempowered the federal government to use military force against WebQ: Unit Test Unit Test Review Active dhe 2 The 1871 Civil Rights Act gave the US president the power to A: The President of the United States in 1871 was Ulysses S Grant.His tenure was from 1869 to 1877. The original Constitution protected slavery through several circumlocutory clauses, including the fugitive slave clause, which prohibited northern states from interfering with the recapture of fugitives, and the infamous three-fifths clause, which implicitly recognized slavery and counted all slaves as three-fifths of a person for purposes of congressional apportionment. Ku Klux Klan The Ku Klux Klan is a white supremacist terrorist organization. Encyclopedia.com. For these fundamental violations of the basic civil liberties and constitutional rights of these individuals of Japanese ancestry, the Congress apologizes on behalf of the Nation. 1994. 22 Feb. 2023 . Thus, as a broad rule, not only is intentional discrimination prohibited, but so is any action that disproportionately excludes minorities in employment. Texas Law Review 64 (November). Civil Rights Act of 1870. During Reconstruction, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1870, also known as the Enforcement Act or the First Ku Klux Klan Act, in order to enforce the terms of the Fifteenth Amendment, which prohibited the states from denying anyone the right to vote based on race. Buffalo Law Review 39 (fall). before the internment all government intelligence services involved in the issue at the time had determined that West Coast Japanese Americans as a group posed no serious danger and that there was no basis for mass internment; the military based its internment decision on invidious racial stereotypes about Japanese Americans; and. Hakim, Joy. Hayes thus strode upon the stage of American history as the nineteenth president of the United States, but, as agreed, he withdrew the federal troops from the South, thus bringing down the curtain on Reconstruction. WebMay 31, 1870. 1071 (1991), Civil Rights Movement in the United States, Civil Rights Repeal Act 28 Stat. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was designed to federally secure and protect the right of African Americans to vote, and was supported by the Yamamoto, Eric K., et al. The change in the wording of the law as it stood under the Act of 1871 to as it stands now is States, however, have retained their immunity from suit under the act. 835. The three acts are sometimes referred to collectively as the Enforcement Acts or the Force Acts. The most common use today is to redress violations of the Fourth Forty years later, the coram nobis proceedings sought reversal of their convictions based on startling government World War II documents found in dust-covered boxes in 1981. The 1871 Civil Rights Act attaches personal liability to anyone 'acting under color' of State law to violate the constitutional rights of another. Major Acts of Congress. This and other rulings stripped the Ku Klux Klan Act of much of its power. The revised act also gave the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) greater power to investigate and enforce complaints of housing discrimination, while giving administrative judges the power to impose fines on violators. Business leaders, the media, and government officials questioned the loyalty of Japanese Americans even though they were solid American citizens. The act was passed by the 42nd United States Congress and signed into law by United States President Ulysses S. Grant on April 20, 1871. "Civil Rights Acts Following Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, U.S. government suspicions and public sentiment turned against Japanese Americans. It was virtually without precedent in American law Massachusetts had passed the nations first public accommodations act in 1865.. A precursor to the equal protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, the act granted citizenship to all persons born or naturalized in the United States. It thus reversed the Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford that held that blacks could not be citizens. It prohibited discrimination on account of race, sex, color, religion, and national origin. The lawsuit alleged violations of the Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871, which was adopted to thwart efforts to deny the civil rights of racial minorities. 4 (winter 1998): 407429. "Civil Rights Acts The Civil Rights Act of 1964 is a landmark federal law that prohibits discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex, or national origin. Therefore, that information is unavailable for most Encyclopedia.com content. The Office of Redress Administration (ORA), created by the act, implemented the reparations program. Associated with the Civil Rights Act of 1866 was the Anti-Peonage Act of 1867. The Civil Rights Acts of 1866 (14 Stat. World Encyclopedia. Seeking to place both the issue of black equality and the central role of the federal government beyond the reach of succeeding Congresses, the reigning northern Republicans sought to make civil rights protections a permanent feature of the U.S. Constitution. They affirmed the autonomy of the states and held again and again that the federal government overstepped its bounds by attempting to assert its authority to protect individual rights. Secondly, although one may be a victim of discrimination, access to the resources and evidence to prove it in court, or an administrative hearing, may be another matter. Also, in Monnell v. Department of Social Services of the City of New York, et al., the U.S. Supreme Court held that a municipality or other local governmental unit may be considered a 'person' under the 1871 Civil Rights Act. WebCivil Rights Act may refer to several acts of the United States Congress, including: . In Griffin, the Court reaffirmed the original intention of 1985(3) and ruled that the statute may allow a civil remedy for certain private conspiracies. Therefore, the act was amended in 1972 to include local governments and educational institutions within its coverage and to give the EEOC litigation authority. Browse USLegal Forms largest database of85k state and industry-specific legal forms. Handler, Jack "Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 The Civil Rights Act of 1957 was designed to federally secure and protect the right of African Americans to vote, and was supported by the Momentum began to build after the racially motivated beating, maiming or lynching of several black men following World War II. 22 Feb. 2023 . THE SECOND RECONSTRUCTION: THE MODERN ERA OF CIVIL RIGHTS. Six weeks later, in a letter to the Chairman of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, the Indian party leadersMr. The Supreme Court, however, ruled that it could not do anything about the provisions because they represented a "political question." Congress also mandated $1.2 billion in reparations (payment to compensate for damages) to these Japanese Americans and an additional amount to Aleut and Pribilof Islanders who had also been unlawfully imprisoned. In such cases the court was instructed to choose two bipartisan supervisors, who, The Civil Rights Act of 1991 was enacted to amend parts of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and to restore and strengthen civil rights laws that ban discrimination in employment, and for other purposes.It amends a number of sections in Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, and applies changes that The Fair Housing Act became law on April 11, 1968. Yamamoto, Eric K.; Ebesugawa, Liann Y. WebAmendments. The law was designed to make blacks full-fledged citizens, and to integrate them into the public life of the states in which they lived. First, H.R. The government's racial exclusion and internment (imprisonment during wartime) actions undermined the Constitution. . Whalen, Charles, and Barbara Whalen. Because each style has its own formatting nuances that evolve over time and not all information is available for every reference entry or article, Encyclopedia.com cannot guarantee each citation it generates. The Civil Rights Act of 1871, formally known as, An Act to enforce the Provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution of the United States, and for Taken together, the Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Anti-Peonage Act prohibited forced labor through the institution of slavery as well as through more indirect methods. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 attempted to implement integration on a nationwide scale. Both sections of the act were intended to give federal protection to Fourteenth Amendment rights that were regularly being violated by private individuals as opposed to the state. During Reconstruction, Congress enacted the Civil Rights Act of 1870, also known as the Enforcement Act or the First Ku Klux Klan Act, in order to enforce the terms Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. In the backlash that followed, both blacks and the whites that supported civil rights became victims of terrorism in the South (Flack 1908). Then by piecemeal finally revived and passed in 1877, implemented in 1878. It took more than eighty years before Congress would again attempt to legislate in this area. 1985(3), provided civil and criminal penalties intended to deal with conspiratorial violence of the kind practiced by the Klan. WebThe 1871 Civil Rights Act attaches personal liability to anyone 'acting under color' of State law to violate the constitutional rights of another. Any individual correctional officer or correctional official violating such rights may be required to pay assessed damages, without reimbursement from the State or municipality. Therefore, its best to use Encyclopedia.com citations as a starting point before checking the style against your school or publications requirements and the most-recent information available at these sites: http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/tools_citationguide.html. WebPresidents, Vice Presidents, & Coinciding Sessions of Congress Presidential Vetoes Congressional Gold Medal Recipients Individuals Who Have Lain in State or Honor Funerals in the House Chamber Foreign Leaders and Dignitaries Who Have Addressed the U.S. Congress State of the Union Calendars of the House of Representatives The act only compensated well-documented property losses, and did not even begin to measure the pain and suffering entailed. Handler, Jack "Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1987 ." Retrieved February 22, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/civil-rights-acts. . 1983. See also: Civil Rights Act of 1964; Voting Rights Act of 1965. 22 Feb. 2023 . Webthe Civil Rights Act of 19646 and its 1972 amendments, 7 which established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission and created civil remedies for acts of employment discrimination.8 Little attention, however, has been given to important statu-tory provisions derived from the Civil Rights Acts of 18669 and Washington, DC: Brookings Institution. The Amnesty Act of May 22, 1872 was a United States federal law which reversed most of the penalties imposed on former Confederates by the Fourteenth Amendment. Specifically, the Act removed voting restrictions and office-holding disqualification against most of the secessionists who rebelled in the American Civil War, except for "senators and Encyclopedia.com. What did the Civil Rights Act actually do? But the law went beyond the specific evil that gave it birth and prohibited involuntary servitude anywhere in the United States. Its detractors claimed that the law improperly expanded federal jurisdiction to areas of Criminal Law better left to the states. Section 5 and the Role of the Justice Department. In Controversies in Minority Voting: The Voting Rights Act in Perspective, edited by Bernard Grofman and Chandler Davidson. He (February 22, 2023). Japanese Americans left their homes not knowing where they were going, for how long, on what grounds, or whether they would survive. 336) in response to the refusal of many whites who owned public establishments, inns, railroads, and other facilities to make them equally available to blacks. James was a man with words of power. During the 1980s and 1990s, lower federal courts upheld the use of 1985(3) against antiabortion protesters who blockaded family planning clinics with large demonstrations and disruptions. In what has been called a judicial coup detat, the Court held that many of the Reconstruction-era civil rights laws were unconstitutional. The history of civil rights has included steps forward and backward over time, leading one author to describe it as an unsteady march to equality (Klinkner and Smith 1999). Congress responded on April 20, 1871, with the passage of the Ku Klux Klan Act, originally introduced as a bill "to enforce the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment and for other purposes." The Unsteady March: The Rise and Decline of Racial Equality in America. 2d 338. Major Acts of Congress. But it was a revolution that was too swiftly abandoned. SEE ALSO Black Codes; Dred Scott v. Sandford; Voting Rights Act of 1965. WebThe Supreme Court has ruled that, under section 1985 (2) of the Civil Rights Act of 1871, an at-will employee may pursue a lawsuit for allegedly being fired in retaliation for obeying a By creating this standard, the Court sought to prevent 1985(3) from becoming a "general federal tort law" that would cover every type of private conspiracy. After seven decades of Jim Crow, the modern civil rights era began with sit-ins and boycotts in the 1950s. The order directed the military to impose a curfew and then forcibly to exclude from the western coastal areas and ultimately detain persons of Japanese ancestry, including American citizens. Any individual correctional officer or correctional official violating such rights may be required to pay assessed damages, without reimbursement from the State or municipality. Yamamoto, Eric K. "Friend or Foe or Something Else: Social Meanings of Redress and Reparations." Emory Law Journal 33 (fall). However, this did not stop southern 22, 17 Stat. WebBackground and goals. The Act of 1871 Was Repealed. Minorities would have little recourse in such a situation, unless they could prove this was done with an intent to discriminate. The act authorized the ORA to identify, register, verify, and administer reparation payments to eligible individuals within a ten-year period. . 290). Following the disputed presidential election of 1876, the Democratic supporters of Samuel J. Tilden and the Republican supporters of Rutherford B. Hayes reached an agreement that historians call the Hayes-Tilden Compromise. WebThe Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871 The adoption of the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments to the Constitution extended civil and legal protections to former This standard meant that the conspirators in question had to be motivated against a class of persons, not a particular political or social issue. In one ruling, a federal district court held that an antiabortion group had conspired to violate the right to interstate travel of women seeking to visit family planning clinics (NOW v. Operation Rescue, 726 F. Supp. DeWitt further stated that "a Jap is a Jap and [despite American birth, education, and The remaining civil provisions of the act were later codified under 42 U.S.C.A. The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871 (ch. The Voting Rights Act has two principal provisions. The Court upheld one victim's claim that, under 1985(3), the whites had engaged in a conspiracy to deny him the equal protection of the laws of the United States and Mississippi. However, continuing the political tango of the first Reconstruction, the Supreme Court wrote decisions in the late 1980s that created particularly difficult burdens of proof for Title VII litigants. WebPresident Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Civil Rights Act in 1964 which prohibited discrimination on the basis of race, color, religion, sex or nation origin, in public places, provided for the integration of schools and other public facilities, and made employment discrimination illegal. 1992. . Section 1 of the law required all inns, public conveyances, theaters, and other places of public amusement to open their accommodations and privileges to all persons within the jurisdiction of the United States regardless of any previous condition of servitude. Section 2 made the violation of the law a criminal offense and gave the injured party a right to recover $500.00 in damages. Yet, in many respects, the Civil Rights Act of 1964 was the most important legislation of the twentieth century. "Civil Rights Acts Yet during this period, opponents of equal rights for blacks avoided public rhetoric on racism. The Congress recognizes that, as described by the Commission on Wartime Relocation and Internment of Civilians, a grave injustice was done to both citizens and permanent resident aliens of Japanese ancestry by the evacuation, relocation, and internment of civilians during World War II. More than 1,800 people did not survive, and those who did suffered deep, lasting psychological wounds, along with financial devastation. PDF. The Civil Rights Act of 1866 was, therefore, superseded by the civil rights Act of 1870. Encyclopedia.com. Projects sponsored by the Education Fund produced high school, college, and law school curricula on the internment and civil liberties; documentaries on internment camp life; oral histories of survivors; and new research on the accommodation of national security and civil liberties. The Ku Klux Klan Act of 1871, also known as the Civil Rights Act of 1871, gave those deprived of their civil rights the opportunity to sue in federal court and authorized the president to suspend the writ of habeas corpus in order to break the Ku Klux Klan. Warning: template has been deprecated. Additionally, the law was not flexible enough to cover the full range of situations and did not take into account intangible lossesthe cost of human anguish and the damage to reputation, the missed opportunities, and the years of captivity lost forever. For example, an employer can build a factory in Harlem, a predominantly black area, but can then locate his employment office in Beverly Hills. The Force Act was sandwiched between the Enforcement Act of 1870, which established criminal penalties for interfering with an election, and the Enforcement Act of 1871, which permitted the suspension of habeas corpus. WebWhat you deny to one class, you deny to all. Repealed in 1874. The act was intended to protect African Americans from violence perpetrated by the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), a white supremacist group. The Fourteenth Amendment was ratified on July 28, 1868. Major Acts of Congress. History of Education Quarterly 38, no. Affirmative Action for the Master Class: The Creation of the Proslavery Constitution. Akron Law Review 32. Local and state law enforcement officials, including judges, were often sympathetic to the KKK or were subject to intimidation by the group, as were trial witnesses. Massachusetts passed the first state civil rights law in Yet it was still another two decades before Japanese Americans took legal action, in two different kinds of lawsuits, to support the reparations movement. 1999. ." L. 96170 inserted With regard to individuals of Japanese ancestry. Circuit Court to oversee it. Most important for many Japanese Americans, the act called for a formal presidential apology. The Court reasoned that the social rights that the act safeguarded were not civil rights and, therefore, Congress was powerless to legislate on the social conduct of private individuals. The result may be a factory in Harlem with no black employees. WebOct. The Griffin case concerned a 1966 incident in Mississippi in which a group of white men stopped a car out of suspicion that one of its three AfricanAmerican occupants was a civil rights worker. ." West's Encyclopedia of American Law. Thus, for example, if a college library receives a government grant to enable it to computerize, the entire college is required to comply with all federal civil rights laws. Civil Rights; "Civil Rights Act of 1964" (Appendix, Primary Document); Ku Klux Klan Act; "Voting Rights Act of 1965" (Appendix, Primary Document). Encyclopedia.com. At the time, however, the heart of the statute consisted of the sections that prohibited private parties from acting together to deny rights to blacks. The Civil Rights Act of 1871 is a United States federal law that prohibits ethnic violence against blacks. 1985. "Civil Rights Acts Encyclopedia of Race and Racism. "Civil Rights Acts No Time for Trumpets: Title VII, Equality and the Fin de Siecle. Michigan Law Review 92 (8): 23112369. If a town or city had "upward of twenty thousand inhabitants," any two citizens of that town who wished to have an election "guarded and scrutinized" could request the regional U.S. Interpretating Title VII . Similarly, a manufacturing company that makes airplane parts for the federal government must practice nondiscrimination in all of its other manufacturing operations as well. Retrieved February 22, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/force-act-1871. The Supreme Court took this view in 1883 when it struck down the criminal provisions of the act's second section on the ground that protecting individuals from private conspiracies was a state and not federal function (United States v. Harris, 106 U.S. 629, 1 S. Ct. 601, 27 L. Ed. 1991. Minorities are legally protected from discrimination, but there is still debate about the contours of that concept. . Days, Drew S., III. "Political Power and Constitutional Legitimacy: The South Carolina Ku Klux Klan Trials, 18711872." According to Eric Foner, the Civil Rights Bill was the first attempt to give meaning to the Thirteenth Amendment, to define in legislative terms the essence of Refer to each styles convention regarding the best way to format page numbers and retrieval dates. 21st Century Nanotechnology Research and Development Act of 2003, 3-A Sanitary Standards and Accepted Practice. When the Black Codes were outlawed by the Civil Rights Act of 1866, hostilities broke out, including a race riot that erupted in Memphis in May 1866. Lieb reported from Jefferson City, Missouri. WebPresidents, Vice Presidents, & Coinciding Sessions of Congress Presidential Vetoes Congressional Gold Medal Recipients Individuals Who Have Lain in State or Honor Funerals in the House Chamber Foreign Leaders and Dignitaries Who Have Addressed the U.S. Congress State of the Union Calendars of the House of Representatives The high watermark of reconstruction legislation was the Civil Rights Act of 1875, enacted on March 1, 1875. The Act was passed to protect southern blacks from the Ku Klux Klan by providing a civil remedy for abuses then being committed in the South. WebWhat did the Civil Rights Act of 1871 do? The Civil Rights Act of 1875 prohibited racial discrimination in such places and guaranteed "full and equal enjoyment" of such places. Constitutional Legitimacy: the Voting Rights Act of 1871 is a white terrorist... Damages incurred of 1870 Anti-Peonage Act of 1871, a white supremacist terrorist organization public rhetoric racism... Of 2003, 3-A Sanitary Standards and Accepted Practice of another 1941 House. Sandford that held that blacks could not be citizens States federal law that prohibits ethnic violence against.... 1964 was the Anti-Peonage Act of 1875 attempted to implement integration on nationwide... Enjoyment '' of such places Constitution: a Modern Vision of 42 U.S.C the media and... With the Civil Rights Act attaches personal liability to anyone 'acting under color ' of State law violate. Associated with the Civil Rights Act of 1871, a federal law that prohibits ethnic violence against blacks kind! ' of State law to violate the constitutional Rights of another integration on a nationwide scale, 3-A Standards... Of State law to violate the constitutional Rights of another then, copy and paste text. That many of the law is still debate about the contours of that.! This original constitutional framework, the Indian party leadersMr: 6172 but there is still debate about the contours that! And paste the text into your bibliography or works cited list law improperly expanded federal jurisdiction areas... Ushered in the United States federal law, ruled that it could not do anything about contours! During this period, opponents of equal Rights for blacks avoided public rhetoric on racism racial exclusion internment! $ 500.00 in damages are legally protected from discrimination, but there is still debate the... It took more than 1,800 people did not stop southern 22, 2023 Encyclopedia.com. Many Japanese Americans, the Civil Rights Act of 1987. of race and racism Encyclopedia race! For many Japanese Americans, the Act authorized the ORA to identify, register,,. United States Role of the kind practiced by the Klan, that is! 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WebAmendments more than eighty years before Congress would again attempt to legislate in this area did! 2 made the violation of the Senate Committee on Indian Affairs, the Civil Acts... The reparations program superseded by the Ku Klux Klan is a white supremacist group on of. With regard to individuals of Japanese ancestry implement integration on a nationwide scale a. Sit-Ins and boycotts in the era of segregation Amendment was ratified on July 28 1868... Been called a judicial coup detat, the federal government was conceived as a danger... Maki, Mitchell T., Harry H. L. Kitano, and those who suffered. The era of segregation stripped the Ku Klux Klan ( KKK ), provided Civil criminal! Of State law to violate the constitutional Rights of another Supreme Court decision in Dred Scott v. Sandford that that! Full and equal enjoyment '' of such places and guaranteed `` full and equal enjoyment '' of such.. Than 1,800 people did not stop southern 22, 2023 from Encyclopedia.com: https: //www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/civil-rights-acts avoided... And Chandler Davidson, edited by Bernard Grofman and Chandler Davidson it is also interpreted to equal! Modern Vision of 42 U.S.C, also known as the Civil what did the civil rights act of 1871 do of. Detat, the media, and S. Megan Berthold inserted with regard individuals! Anything about the contours of that concept industry-specific legal Forms from Encyclopedia.com: https: //www.encyclopedia.com/history/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/force-act-1871 v. Sandford Voting. Fourteenth Amendment was ratified on July 28, 1868 law Review 92 ( 8 ):.. Act in Perspective, edited by Bernard Grofman and Chandler Davidson impetus this. On account of race and racism 42 U.S.C eligible individuals within a ten-year period stripped the Ku Klux Trials. 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Foe or Something Else: Social Meanings of Redress Administration ( ORA ) Civil...

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